History, Causes, Events and Consequences of American Independence

Consequences of American Independence

Date	Location	Participants	Major Events	Key Figures
September 3, 1775 - 1783	United States of America	Dutch Republic, France, Loyalists, Spain, United Kingdom, United States of America, American Colonies	Battle of Brandywine, Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Monmouth, Battle of Saratoga, Battle of Bemis Heights	Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Jane McCrea, George Washington, Bernardo de Gálvez

Introduction

The American Revolution, also known as the United States War of Independence or the American Revolutionary War, took place from 1775 to 1783. It was a significant insurrection where 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies successfully gained political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war was the culmination of more than a decade of increasing estrangement between the British crown and a significant segment of its North American colonies. British attempts to exert greater control over colonial affairs, following a period of neglect, sparked tensions and discontent among the colonists.

The conflict initially began as a civil war within the British Empire but evolved into an international war when France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain. Additionally, the Netherlands, recognizing the United States and providing financial support, was engaged in its own war against Britain. Sea power played a crucial role throughout the war, influencing British strategy and ultimately leading to the final British surrender at Yorktown with the assistance of the French.

Land Campaigns to 1778

The American forces fought the war on land with two primary organizations: the Continental Army and state militias. Throughout the conflict, the Continental Army received a total of 231,771 men through state quotas, while the militias totaled 164,087. However, at any given time, the American forces rarely exceeded 20,000 troops, and by 1781, there were only approximately 29,000 insurgents armed across the country. Consequently, the war was primarily fought by small field armies. The militias, lacking discipline and often led by elected officers, were called upon for periods typically not exceeding three months.

The terms of service for the Continental Army gradually increased from one to three years, but even with incentives such as bounties and land offers, the army struggled to maintain its strength. Several factors contributed to the challenge of sustaining an adequate Continental force, including the colonists' historical aversion to standing armies, farmers' objections to leaving their fields, competition between the states and the Continental Congress to retain men in the militia, and the inadequate and unreliable pay during a period of inflation.

In contrast, the British army consisted of reliable and professional troops. With a total number of approximately 42,000, the British implemented extensive recruiting programs. Many of the enlisted soldiers were farm boys, similar to most American soldiers. Others were unemployed individuals from urban areas, while some joined the army to escape fines or imprisonment.

Through rigorous training and strict discipline, the majority of British soldiers became highly efficient in combat. The officers were primarily drawn from the gentry and aristocracy, obtaining commissions and promotions through purchase. Although they lacked formal military training, they were not as dependent on theoretical knowledge of military tactics as many American officers. British generals, however, often exhibited a lack of imagination and initiative, while those who demonstrated such qualities were sometimes impulsive.

Due to the scarcity of troops and the absence of conscription, the British government adhered to a traditional policy and purchased around 30,000 troops from various German princes. The Lensgreve (landgrave) of Hesse contributed approximately three-fifths of the total foreign mercenaries. The use of these mercenaries by the British crown roused significant antagonism in America, becoming one of the acts that generated strong opposition.

Prelude to War

The colony of Massachusetts was regarded by King George III and his ministers as a center of disloyalty. Following the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773, Parliament responded with the Intolerable Acts in 1774. These punitive measures were designed to suppress the rebellious population and enforce obedience.

The 1691 charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was revoked, and the colony's elected ruling council was replaced with a military government led by General Thomas Gage, the commander of all British troops in North America.

Gage commanded approximately 4,000 men, divided into four regiments, from his headquarters in Boston. Parliament believed this force would be sufficient to maintain control over the population in the area. William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, the secretary of state for the colonies, advised Gage to...

The Perception from London

In London, Dartmouth formed the opinion that the violence carried out by those who had taken up arms in Massachusetts was the result of an unorganized and unruly mob. He believed that their actions lacked planning, coordination, and proper conduct. Dartmouth concluded that a small force, if tested, would have a higher likelihood of success in subduing the colonists compared to a larger army, especially if the people were allowed to form a more structured resistance.

Gage's Assessment and Actions

On the other hand, General Thomas Gage, stationed in Boston, believed that a force of no less than 20,000 troops would be necessary for such an undertaking. However, he had to work with the troops available to him. In late summer of 1774, Gage initiated efforts to suppress the preparations for war in New England by seizing weapons and gunpowder stores. Although the colonists were initially caught off guard, they quickly mobilized. Groups like the Sons of Liberty obtained advance information about British actions, while Committees of Correspondence facilitated the organization of countermeasures.

The Warning at Fort William and Mary

Upon learning of the British plan to secure the weapons cache at Fort William and Mary in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the Committee of Correspondence in Boston dispatched Paul Revere on December 13, 1774, to warn local allies. The next day, a group of several hundred men stormed the fort, captured the six-man garrison, seized a significant quantity of gunpowder, and lowered the British flag. In the following months, colonial leaders frustrated British attempts to deprive the rebellion of essential war supplies by seizing British caches and hiding arms and ammunition in private homes.

On April 14, 1775, Gage received a letter from Dartmouth stating that Massachusetts had been declared in open revolt and instructing him to "arrest and imprison the principal Actors and Abettors in the [Massachusetts] Provincial Congress." However, the colonists were already aware of Gage's intentions before he could execute his orders.

Paul Revere's Ride and the Battles of Lexington and Concord

On April 16, Paul Revere rode to Concord, advising local compatriots to secure their military stores in anticipation of British troop movements. Two nights later, Revere rode from Charlestown to Lexington to warn of the British advance. Revolutionary leaders John Hancock and Samuel Adams fled Lexington, and Revere was joined by fellow riders William Dawes and Samuel Prescott.

Although the trio was apprehended outside Lexington by a British patrol, Prescott managed to escape and continued on to Concord. Revere's midnight ride provided crucial information to the colonists about British intentions and later became the subject of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem.

Around 700 British troops spent the evening of April 18, 1775, assembling on Boston Common with orders to seize the colonial armory at Concord. The public display of the troops eliminated any chance of secrecy for Gage. By the time the force crossed the Charles River to Cambridge, it was already 2:00 am the following morning. The march to Lexington was arduous, starting in a swamp and forcing the British soldiers to wade through waist-deep brackish water. When they reached Lexington at around 5:00 am, 77 minutemen had gathered on the village green. Both sides' officers instructed their men to hold their positions but not to fire their weapons.

The exact source of the "shot heard 'round the world" remains unclear, but it triggered a skirmish that resulted in the deaths of eight Americans. The colonial force dispersed, and the British proceeded to Concord, where they faced determined resistance from hundreds of militiamen. Outnumbered and low on ammunition, the British column was compelled to retreat to Boston. During the return march, American snipers inflicted significant casualties on the British, and only the timely arrival of 1,100 reinforcements prevented a complete rout. The Battles of Lexington and Concord resulted in the loss of 273 British soldiers and 95 American militiamen, both in terms of killed and wounded.

The Outcomes and Significance

The battles at Lexington and Concord marked a turning point in the American Revolution. They were the first military engagements between the colonial militia and British forces and signified the beginning of open armed conflict. The events not only revealed the colonists' determination to resist British authority but also demonstrated that they were capable of standing up to a professional army.

Moreover, the Battles of Lexington and Concord had a profound impact on public opinion within the colonies. News of the clashes spread rapidly, fueling a surge of support for the revolutionary cause and inspiring more colonists to join the fight for independence. The armed resistance against British aggression solidified the resolve of the American people and paved the way for the formal declaration of independence and the subsequent formation of the United States of America.

In addition to their symbolic significance, the battles also had practical implications. The colonial militia's success in defending their military supplies at Concord proved that they could effectively confront British forces. It boosted their morale and confidence, encouraging them to continue resisting British oppression and pursue their quest for freedom.

The Siege of Boston and the Battle of Bunker Hill: Shaping the American Revolution

The Siege of Boston and the Battle of Bunker Hill were significant events during the early stages of the American Revolution. These engagements showcased the determination and resilience of the American forces, led by General George Washington, against the British troops stationed in Boston.

Convergence of Rebel Militia and British Reinforcements:

Rebel Militia Mobilization:

Rebel militia from New England regions converged on Boston.

Militia members joined forces to oppose British control and defend their rights.

British Reinforcements:

British authorities dispatched Generals Sir William Howe, Sir Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne, followed by Charles Cornwallis, to reinforce the troops in Boston.
These commanders played crucial roles in the British operations during the siege.

The Battle of Bunker Hill: American Defensive Measures:

The American forces strategically entrenched themselves on Breed's Hill, overlooking the British position.

Placing artillery on the heights would have threatened the British position in Boston.

British Assault and American Resistance:

On June 17, 1775, General Howe led a frontal assault on the American fortifications.

The battle, misleadingly named the Battle of Bunker Hill, primarily took place on Breed's Hill.

The British troops faced fierce resistance and suffered heavy casualties, with more than 40 percent of the assault force lost.

Moral Victory for the Americans:

Although the British eventually cleared the hill, the battle was considered a moral victory for the Americans.

The determined defense demonstrated the resolve of the American forces against the mighty British army.

George Washington Assumes Command:

Washington's Responsibilities:

On July 3, 1775, George Washington assumed command of the American forces at Cambridge.

He faced the challenges of containing the British troops in Boston and recruiting a Continental Army.

Recruitment and Artillery Acquisition:

Recruitment efforts initially lagged, leading to the call-up of fresh drafts of militia to maintain the siege.

In late winter, General Henry Knox arrived with artillery from Fort Ticonderoga, acquired in May 1775.

British Evacuation of Boston:

The cannons from Fort Ticonderoga were mounted on Dorchester Heights, threatening the British position in Boston.

Under this pressure, General Howe evacuated the city on March 17, 1776, and relocated to Halifax.

Developments in Canada and the South:

American Invasion of Canada:

In the fall of 1775, American forces launched an invasion of Canada.

General Richard Montgomery captured Montreal, while Benedict Arnold led a remarkable march to Quebec.

Setbacks in Canada:

The attack on Quebec on December 31, 1775, failed, resulting in Montgomery's death and the capture of many American troops.

Despite maintaining a siege, the Americans were forced to withdraw with the arrival of British reinforcements.

Resistance in the South:

Patriots in North Carolina achieved a victory against loyalists at Moore's Creek Bridge in February 1776.

Charleston, South Carolina, successfully defended itself against a British assault by sea in June.

The Battle for New York: British Invasion and American Resistance

The arrival of the British Forces

In their determined effort to crush the American rebellion, the British government dispatched a formidable force to New York. General Howe and Admiral Lord Howe, accompanied by a large fleet and 34,000 British and German troops, set sail from Halifax on June 10, 1776. On July 5, they established their encampment on Staten Island. The Continental Congress, having declared independence for the colonies, initially believed that the Howes were authorized to negotiate peace terms. However, they soon discovered that the Howes' mandate was solely to accept submissions and grant pardons.

Peace Efforts Fail and British Force Prevails

As diplomatic efforts failed, the Howes turned to military force. General Washington, anticipating the British strategy, had already led his troops from Boston to New York and fortified the city. However, his position was far from ideal. With his left flank stretched across the East River, beyond the village of Brooklyn, and the rest of his forces along the Hudson River, Washington's army was vulnerable to a combined naval and ground attack.

The British, with their naval supremacy, forced Washington out of New York, compelling the abandonment of Manhattan Island. General Howe executed three well-coordinated movements against the American left flank, crossing the narrows to the Long Island shore with 15,000 troops on August 22, 1776. The number of troops increased to 20,000 by the 25th. The British achieved a resounding victory on August 27, driving the Americans into their Brooklyn defenses and inflicting a loss of approximately 1,400 men. Sensing the dire situation, Washington skillfully evacuated his army from Brooklyn to Manhattan under the cover of a fog.

British Invasion of Manhattan and American Retreat

On September 15, General Howe continued his offensive by invading Manhattan. Although he faced resistance at Harlem Heights the following day, he managed to lure Washington off the island through strategic maneuvers to Throg's Neck and then to New Rochelle, northeast of the city. Leaving garrisons at Fort Washington in Manhattan and Fort Lee on the opposite shore of the Hudson River, Washington hurried to intercept Howe. However, on October 28, Howe defeated the American army at Chatterton Hill near White Plains. Exploiting the gap between the American army and Fort Washington, Howe stormed the fort on November 16, seizing valuable military assets, and supplies, and capturing nearly 3,000 prisoners. Subsequently, British forces, led by Lord Cornwallis, captured Fort Lee and embarked on a campaign to drive the American army across New Jersey. Although Washington managed to escape to the west bank of the Delaware River, his army was severely depleted. Howe then established winter quarters with outposts in towns such as Bordentown and Trenton.

Washington's Counterattack and the Turning Point

In a remarkable display of strategy and bravery, Washington launched a daring counterattack on Christmas night. With 2,400 men, he crossed the treacherous, ice-filled Delaware River and launched a surprise assault on the Hessian garrison at Trenton at dawn, capturing nearly 1,000 prisoners. Although Cornwallis nearly trapped Washington's forces and recaptured Trenton on January 2, 1777, Washington skillfully escaped during the night and achieved a decisive victory against British reinforcements at Princeton the next day. He then led his troops into winter quarters in the defensible region around Morristown. The Trenton-Princeton campaign revitalized the American cause, rallying support and preventing the collapse of the struggle for independence.

The Surrender at Saratoga and French Involvement

British Strategy and Howe's Actions

In 1777, Britain devised a strategy to divide New England from the other colonies. General John Burgoyne led an army from Canada to join forces with General Howe on the Hudson River. However, Howe decided that Burgoyne was capable of operating independently and left New York, taking his army by sea to Chesapeake Bay. He defeated George Washington at the Battle of Brandywine Creek on September 11, 1777, without achieving a decisive victory. Continuing his campaign, Howe entered Philadelphia, the American capital, on September 25, causing the Continental Congress to flee to York. Washington launched a counterattack at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, but had to withdraw and went into winter quarters at Valley Forge.

Burgoyne's Campaign and Saratoga

In the northern theater of the war, Burgoyne aimed to move south to Albany with approximately 9,000 troops comprising British, German, Indian, and American loyalist forces. Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger was to provide support by advancing on Albany through the Mohawk Valley. Burgoyne easily captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5 but faced difficulties due to the rugged terrain, trees felled by American axmen under General Philip Schuyler, and the need for horses. He sent a German force to collect horses in Bennington, Vermont, but they suffered a major defeat on August 16 at the hands of New Englanders led by General John Stark and Colonel Seth Warner. Meanwhile, St. Leger besieged Fort Schuyler (present-day Rome, New York), ambushed American militia at Oriskany on August 6, but ultimately retreated as the Native American allies abandoned the siege and American forces under Benedict Arnold approached. Burgoyne himself reached the Hudson River, but General Horatio Gates and Arnold's leadership resulted in the American victory at the Battles of Freeman's Farm on September 19 and Bemis Heights on October 7. Ten days later, Burgoyne, unable to receive reinforcements from New York, surrendered at Saratoga.

French Entry into the War

The surrender at Saratoga had a significant impact as it led to France's entrance into the war. Although France had been providing covert financial and material assistance since 1776, the surrender prompted them to prepare fleets and armies. France formally declared war on Britain in June 1778.

Land Campaigns from 1778

During the winter at Valley Forge, the American forces endured severe hardships, including food shortages exacerbated by mismanagement, corruption among quartermasters and commissaries, and farmers' refusal to accept paper money. The arrival of Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a Prussian officer serving in the French army, brought improvements in order and discipline through his training program. This program emphasized officer drilling, marching in formation, and effective use of firearms.

The training paid off at the Battle of Monmouth Court House in New Jersey on June 28, 1778, when Washington launched an attack against the retreating British forces. Although Sir Henry Clinton, who had replaced Howe, launched a counteroffensive, the American troops stood their ground. From then on, Washington established his headquarters at West Point on the Hudson River, while Clinton claimed his forces were too weak to launch an attack there.

French Assistance and Joint Efforts

French aid became more significant with the arrival of a formidable fleet commanded by the Comte d'Estaing. Unable to enter New York Harbor, d'Estaing attempted to assist Major General John Sullivan in dislodging the British from Newport, Rhode Island. However, storms and the arrival of British reinforcements disrupted their joint efforts.

Setbacks in the North

During the remainder of the war, the actions in the North resulted in a stalemate. The British conducted raids on New Bedford, Massachusetts, and New Haven and New London, Connecticut. Loyalists and Native Americans attacked settlements in New York and Pennsylvania. However, the Americans had their victories as well. General "Mad" Anthony Wayne stormed Stony Point, New York, on July 16, 1779, while "Light-Horse Harry" Lee captured Paulus Hook, New Jersey, on August 19. One of the most significant events was Sullivan's expedition in August 1779, targeting the British Indian allies in New York.

This expedition involved the destruction of their villages and cornfields. In the western frontier, Colonel George Rogers Clark launched campaigns against British posts. He captured Kaskaskia, the major post in the Illinois country, on July 4, 1778, and later secured the submission of Vincennes. Although Vincennes was recaptured by British General Henry Hamilton, Clark reclaimed it in the spring of 1779. These campaigns helped mitigate Indian raids, gave the Americans control over the northwest, and encouraged expansion into the Ohio Valley.

Setbacks and Challenges

The American cause faced potential serious blows in 1780. One of the major setbacks was the defection of General Benedict Arnold, who attempted to betray West Point to the British but failed. The British contact for this betrayal, Major John André, was captured by the Americans and executed as a spy. Additionally, the army experienced mutinies in 1780 and 1781. These mutinies arose from misunderstandings about enlistment terms, inadequate food and clothing, significant payment arrears, and the declining value of the dollar. The mutinies, which were suppressed through force or negotiation, shook the morale of the army.

Final Campaigns in the South and Cornwallis's Surrender

British strategy shifted to focus on offensives in the South starting in 1778. They aimed to exploit the flexibility of sea power and the support of loyalist populations. By January 1779, British forces from New York and St. Augustine, Florida, had occupied Georgia. General Augustine Prevost established his headquarters in Savannah and successfully defended the city against a Franco-American army led by Comte d'Estaing in the fall of 1779. During the assault on Savannah on October 9, 1779, Polish officer Count Kazimierz Pułaski, serving on the American side, was mortally wounded.

Failing to achieve decisive results in the North, General Clinton led a combined military and naval expedition southward. He evacuated Newport on October 25, 1779, leaving German General Wilhelm, Freiherr von Knyphausen in command of New York, and joined Prevost in Savannah with around 8,500 men in December. General Cornwallis and later Lord Rawdon joined them with additional forces. Clinton's forces marched on Charleston, isolating the city and forcing General Benjamin Lincoln to surrender on May 12, 1780.

The loss of Charleston and its garrison of 5,000 troops, essentially the entire Continental Army in the South, dealt a significant blow to the American cause. Concerned about the threat posed by a French expeditionary force under Comte de Rochambeau to Newport, Clinton returned to New York in June, leaving Cornwallis in Charleston.

Cornwallis, however, took the initiative. On August 16, 1780, he defeated General Gates's army at Camden, South Carolina, resulting in the mortal wounding of German Continental Army officer Johann Kalb. Following the destruction of a loyalist force at Kings Mountain on October 7, Cornwallis pursued the new.

Meanwhile, Cornwallis's Campaign in Virginia

In May 1781, General Cornwallis entered Virginia and reached Petersburg on May 20. He dispatched Colonel Banastre Tarleton on raids across the colony, establishing British control as far north as Fredericksburg and west to Charlottesville. It was in Charlottesville where Thomas Jefferson, the governor of Virginia at the time, narrowly escaped capture by Tarleton's men. Cornwallis began constructing a base at Yorktown while facing off against American forces led by General Wayne, General Steuben, and the Marquis de Lafayette.

The Siege of Yorktown

Upon learning that Comte de Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake Bay with a sizable fleet and 3,000 French troops, General Washington and General Rochambeau moved their forces south to Virginia. By mid-September, the combined Franco-American forces had placed Yorktown under siege, and British attempts to rescue Cornwallis proved unsuccessful. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered his army of over 7,000 men. This marked the second time during the war that the British had lost an entire army.

Conclusion of Land Action and Evacuation of British Forces

Following the surrender at Yorktown, land action in America diminished, although the war continued in other theaters and on the high seas. General Clinton was eventually replaced by Sir Guy Carleton. During the peace treaty negotiations and afterward, Carleton oversaw the evacuation of thousands of loyalists from America, including significant departures from Savannah on July 11, 1782, and Charleston on December 14. The last British forces departed New York on November 25, 1783, and Washington triumphantly reentered the city.

The War at Sea

While the American colonies initially attempted to challenge Britain's naval power at the outbreak of the Revolution, the naval conflict in later stages primarily involved Britain and America's European allies, reducing the American effort to privateering.

Status of Naval Forces at the Beginning of the War

At the start of the Revolution, the colonies did not possess a significant naval force. However, they had a substantial maritime population and a fleet of merchant vessels engaged in domestic and international trade. Colonial ships and seamen had participated in British naval expeditions against Cartagena, Spain, and Louisburg, Nova Scotia, during the war between Britain and France from 1754 to 1763. Additionally, colonists had engaged in privateering during the French and Indian War, the American phase of the broader conflict known as the Seven Years' War in Europe.

Recognizing the importance of sea power, the Continental Congress authorized the establishment of the Continental Navy in October 1775 and created the Marine Corps in November. However, the navy, guided by the naval and marine committees of the Congress, experienced only sporadic success. In 1776, the Continental Navy had 27 ships compared to Britain's 270. By the end of the war, the British navy had nearly 500 ships, while the American navy dwindled to 20. Many skilled seamen had turned to privateering, and the Continental Navy suffered from insufficient training and discipline among its commanders and crews.

Early Naval Engagements and Privateers

During the American Revolutionary War, the navy and privateers played a significant role in the conflict, delivering blows to British forces and commerce.

Successes of Naval Captains

Commodore Esek Hopkins achieved a notable victory by capturing New Providence (Nassau) in the Bahamas in 1776. Other captains such as Lambert Wickes, Gustavus Conyngham, and John Barry also enjoyed successes. However, it was the Scottish-born John Paul Jones who stood out. As captain of the Ranger in 1778, Jones conducted raids along the British coasts, capturing the man-of-war Drake. In 1779, as captain of the Bonhomme Richard, he intercepted a timber convoy and captured the British frigate Serapis.

Impact of American Privateers

The raids by American privateers on British shipping proved even more damaging. Colonial ships, accustomed to arming themselves against pirates during peacetime, turned to privateering on a large scale during the war. Individual colonies and the Continental Congress provided legal authorization for privateering activities. Records show that over 2,000 private armed vessels were employed, equipped with more than 18,000 guns and manned by approximately 70,000 men. Additionally, several colonies organized state navies that targeted enemy commerce. These privateering operations constituted a significant American military effort during the war and, along with a few Continental vessels, applied sustained offensive pressure that influenced the British people's stance on peace.

By the end of 1777, American ships had captured 560 British vessels, and the number likely reached 1,500 by the war's end. More than 12,000 British sailors were also captured. The damage inflicted on British commerce led to skyrocketing insurance rates, reduced revenue sources, and raised concerns among coastal populations about potential American incursions. By 1781, British merchants were clamoring for an end to hostilities.

Naval Engagements and French Intervention

Most naval action took place at sea, with a few exceptions such as Arnold's battles against Carleton's fleet on Lake Champlain in October 1776. Although Arnold lost both battles, his construction of a fleet of small vessels forced the British to build a larger fleet, delaying their attack on Fort Ticonderoga until the following spring and contributing to Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga in October 1777.

The entry of France into the war, followed by Spain in 1779 and the Netherlands in 1780, brought significant changes to the naval aspect of the conflict. While the Spanish and Dutch did not play active roles, their involvement in keeping British naval forces occupied in Europe was crucial. Britain struggled to maintain an effective blockade of both the American coast and enemy ports due to the inadequacy of its outdated and insufficient number of ships on the line. Consequently, France's Toulon fleet, under the command of d'Estaing, safely reached America.

The fleet appeared off New York and later supported Sullivan in the unsuccessful siege of Newport. An inconclusive battle off Ushant, France, between the Channel fleet under Adm. Augustus Keppel and the Brest fleet under the Comte d'Orvilliers in July 1778 had a significant impact. Had Keppel emerged as the decisive winner, French aid to the Americans would have diminished, potentially altering Rochambeau's ability to lead his expedition to America.

In the following year, England faced real danger. Privateers from the United States, France, and Spain posed threats off its coasts, and raids by John Paul Jones added to the concerns. Moreover, the combined fleets of France and Spain gained command of the English Channel, while a French army of 50,000 troops waited for an opportune moment to embark on their transports. However, fortunate circumstances favored the British at this critical juncture. Storms, sickness among the allied crews, and changes of plans ultimately terminated the immediate threat of invasion.

The Decisive Action at Virginia Capes

The entry of France, Spain, and the Netherlands into the war had a profound impact on the naval balance of power. Their combined efforts kept British naval forces occupied and prevented them from effectively blockading the American coast and enemy ports. One of the most significant naval encounters occurred at Virginia Capes.

In 1781, the Comte de Grasse arrived in the Chesapeake Bay with a large fleet and 3,000 French troops. This news prompted General George Washington and French General Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau to move their forces south to Virginia. By mid-September, the Franco-American forces had placed Yorktown under siege, effectively trapping British General Lord Cornwallis and his army.

The British attempted to mount rescue efforts, but they proved fruitless. Cut off from reinforcements or escape, Cornwallis was left with no choice but to surrender. On October 19, 1781, he surrendered his army of more than 7,000 men. This victory at Yorktown marked a turning point in the war and dealt a severe blow to British morale.

Naval Operations During the War

While land action in America began to subside following the surrender at Yorktown, naval operations continued both in American waters and on the high seas. The American navy, despite its limited resources and challenges, made important contributions.

In the early stages of the war, the Continental Navy faced significant disadvantages. In 1776, it had only 27 ships compared to Britain's 270. By the end of the war, the British fleet had grown to nearly 500 ships, while the American fleet dwindled to just 20 vessels. The American navy suffered from a lack of training and discipline, as many experienced seamen had turned to privateering instead.

However, the efforts of American privateers compensated for the limitations of the Continental Navy. Thousands of privately owned armed vessels targeted British shipping, causing significant disruption to British commerce. By the end of 1777, American ships had captured 560 British vessels, and the number likely exceeded 1,500 by the war's end. The economic impact of these privateering activities was substantial, with insurance rates skyrocketing and British coastal populations growing increasingly concerned.

British Naval Operations and European Allies

Despite the threat of invasion and losses in the West Indies, the British maintained control of the North American seaboard in 1779 and 1780, enabling their Southern land campaigns. Additionally, they reinforced the besieged fortress of Gibraltar and dispatched a fleet led by Admiral Sir George Rodney to the West Indies in early 1780. However, their maneuvers against French naval forces under the comte de Guichen proved unsuccessful, and Rodney eventually sailed back to New York.

French Naval Actions and British Countermeasures

During Rodney's absence in the West Indies, a French squadron under Admiral de Ternay slipped out of Brest and arrived in Newport with the army of General Rochambeau. Instead of blocking the approach to Newport, Rodney returned to the West Indies, where he received orders to attack Dutch possessions. In the process, he seized Sint Eustatius, a crucial Dutch island serving as a major depot for war materials destined for American vessels. The significant booty led to an extended stay of six months at the island.

In 1781, a powerful British fleet managed to relieve the besieged Gibraltar. However, this came at the cost of the departure of the French fleet from Brest. Part of the fleet sailed to India, while the larger portion, under Admiral François-Joseph-Paul, comte de Grasse, headed to the West Indies. After indecisive maneuvers against Rodney, de Grasse received a request from General Washington and General Rochambeau to join them in New York or the Chesapeake.

In the meantime, in March, a French squadron attempted to transport troops from Newport to the Chesapeake but was forced to retreat by Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot, who had succeeded Lord Howe. Shortly after, Arbuthnot was replaced by Admiral Thomas Graves.

Naval Battle and Consequences at the Chesapeake

Upon learning that a French squadron would soon depart the West Indies, Rodney sent Samuel Hood north with a formidable force, while he himself sailed for England, taking several powerful ships that would have been better utilized under Hood's command. De Grasse arrived in the Chesapeake, where he landed troops to support Lafayette in containing General Cornwallis until the arrival of Washington and Rochambeau. Graves, fearing the junction of de Grasse and the comte de Barras, who was carrying Rochambeau's artillery train from Newport, sailed with Hood to the Chesapeake. Graves had 19 ships of the line against de Grasse's 24.

The ensuing Battle of the Virginia Capes, which commenced on September 5, was not skillfully managed, but Graves found himself at a disadvantage and retreated to New York, sealing Cornwallis's fate at Yorktown. On October 17, Graves ventured out again with a substantial troop contingent and 25 ships of the line, while de Grasse, reinforced by Barras, now commanded 36 ships of the line. However, no battle took place as Graves learned of Cornwallis's surrender.

Implications and Conclusion

Although the British managed to regain some ground with Rodney's victory over de Grasse in the Battle of the Saints off Dominica in 1782 and successful campaigns in India, these events did not significantly alter the situation in America following the surrender at Yorktown. The new British government under Lord Shelburne attempted to negotiate a separate peace with the American commissioners. However, the treaty negotiated with the Americans would not take effect until a formal peace agreement was reached with their European allies.

The Aftermath of the War of Independence

Signing of the Preliminary Articles and the Peace of Paris

On November 30, 1782, preliminary articles of peace were signed, and on September 3, 1783, the Peace of Paris officially ended the U.S. War of Independence. Under the terms of the peace treaty, Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States, with the western boundaries extending to the Mississippi River. Additionally, Britain ceded Florida to Spain. The treaty also addressed the payment of U.S. private debts to British citizens, allowed American use of the Newfoundland fisheries, and called for fair treatment of American loyalists to Britain.

Assessing the Outcome

Scholars analyzing the outcome of the war have highlighted the absence of a coherent overall strategy by the British to secure victory. Even if the British possessed sufficient power to end the war early on, their generals, such as Howe, failed to effectively employ that power with promptness and vigor. Their cautious approach and reluctance to take risks resulted in missed opportunities to deal significant blows to the rebellion. Additionally, there were instances of poor coordination and understanding between British commanders, as seen with Burgoyne and Howe in 1777. The British also overestimated the support they would receive from loyalists.

However, the success of the United States cannot be attributed solely to British mistakes. Despite occasional weaknesses in their war effort, the Americans consistently capitalized on their enemies' errors. The Continental Army, even before the reforms introduced by Baron von Steuben, was not an inept force. The militias, although often unreliable, displayed commendable performance under capable leaders such as Arnold, Greene, and Morgan, often bolstering the Continental Army during critical moments. Furthermore, General Washington, unwavering in adversity, gradually honed his skills as a military leader. The supplies and financial assistance provided by France between 1776 and 1778 proved invaluable, while French military and naval support after 1778 played a vital role. The ultimate outcome of the war, therefore, resulted from a combination of British blunders, American efforts, and crucial French assistance.

History, Causes, Events and Consequences of American Independence - Historical Analysis