Throughout history, India has been a hotbed of foreign trade, attracting various civilizations, including European companies in search of commercial opportunities. It is also true that the eyes of European traders were on India only for business purposes. The Portuguese were among the first Europeans to enter India via sea routes and were soon followed by the Dutch, the British, and the French, each pursuing their own trading interests. As time passed, these European trading companies gained control of India's sea routes and coastal areas, establishing a dominant force in the maritime trade sector.
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The Arrival of European Companies in India:
| Country | Arrival Year | Company Name |
|---|---|---|
| Portugal | 1498 | - |
| Dutch (Holland) | 1596 | Dutch East India Company |
| British | 1600 | East India Company |
| French | 1668 | French East India Company |
| Danish | 1620 | Denmark (Danish East India Company) |
The arrival of Portuguese traders in India
In the year 1498, the Portuguese sailor Vasco-da-Gama came to India by sea route. The credit for the discovery of this sea route is given only to the Portuguese. Vasco-da-Gama arrived in Calicut, on the west coast of India, where he was warmly received by the Hindu ruler, the Zamorin (a title). The Zamorin facilitated trade for Vasco-da-Gama, as commerce was the primary objective of European expeditions to India. This voyage revealed the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope.
Francisco-de-Almeida
In 1505, Francisco-de-Almeida was appointed as the official governor of the Portuguese territories in India. His mission was to establish Portuguese supremacy over trade in the Indian Ocean, but he failed and returned to Portugal in 1509 AD.
Alphonso-de-Albuquerque
After Francisco-de-Almeida, in 1509 AD, Alfonso-de-Albuquerque came to India as the next Portuguese governor. Alfonso-de-Albuquerque is regarded as the real builder of the Portuguese dominion in India. He advocated intermarriage between Portuguese and Indians to increase the Portuguese population in India.
Alfonso-de-Albuquerque successfully conquered Goa and the island of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. In 1510 AD, the Portuguese captured Goa from Yusuf Adilshah, the ruler of Bijapur. In addition, Alfonso-de-Albuquerque oversaw the construction of the Portuguese fort at Cochin in 1503 AD. In 1530 AD, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese in India and served as their headquarters.
Martin Alphonso D'Souza
In 1560 AD, Martin Alphonso D'Souza took over the post of governor, and during his tenure, the Christian Saint Francisco Xavier arrived in India. Xavier played an important role in motivating the local castes and fishermen in Goa to convert to Christianity. The Portuguese named their maritime empire as the 'Estado da India', and imposed a protection tax called Carthage, similar to a permit, on ships passing through their territory. Even the famous Mughal Emperor Akbar had to pay this security tax.
The Portuguese made important contributions to India by introducing the cultivation of red chilies, black pepper, and tobacco. Additionally, they brought shipbuilding and printing press technology to India and established the first printing press in the country in 1556 AD. The earliest Portuguese factory in Bengal was established at Hooghly.
Pondicherry was the first Indian territory to be captured by the Portuguese in 1793 AD. However, by the 17th century, their power in India began to wane due to the arrival of the Dutch, religious intolerance, intervention by the Portuguese imperial government, and the eventual end of their monopoly in India.
The arrival of Dutch traders in India
In the year 1596 AD, the inhabitants of Holland, known as the Dutch, came to India, which marked the beginning of Dutch relations with the region. Subsequently, in 1602 AD, he established the Dutch East India Company, the first joint stock company with the objective of facilitating trade with India. While their primary focus was on trade with the islands of Southeast Asia, India served as an important link in their trade routes.
The Dutch won over the Portuguese and built Fort Williams in Kochi. They also established trading centers in various regions including Gujarat, Coromandel, Bengal, and Odisha. He established the first kothi at Musalipatnam and the second at Pulicat.
During the 17th century, Dutch trading power reached its zenith. They exported important commodities like cotton, opium, silk, and spices from India. However, in 1759 AD, a decisive battle known as the Battle of Bedra took place between the British and the Dutch, which resulted in a crushing defeat for the Dutch. This defeat weakened their presence in India, paving the way for British dominance in the 18th century. As a result, the Dutch gradually lost their importance and influence in the face of British expansion.
The arrival of British traders in India
The British proved to be the most powerful and shrewd of all the European companies trading with India. Their earliest interactions with India date back to 1599 AD when John Mildenhall became the first Englishman to visit the country. On December 31, 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted the British Company the right to trade with India for 15 years. The charter allowed the Levant Company to trade by land route and the East India Company by sea route.
Captain Hawkins arrives at Jahangir's court
In 1608 AD, Captain Hawkins, representing England, reached the court of the Mughal ruler Jahangir as an ambassador with the intention of expanding British trade in India. Hawkins gave gifts of English gloves and wagons to Jahangir and was awarded the title 'English Khan'.
Despite Jahangir's willingness to allow the British to settle in Surat, opposition from the Portuguese and local merchants hindered his decision.
As a result, in 1611 AD, under the leadership of Captain Middleton, the British resorted to forceful conquest. Additionally, the British defeated the Portuguese fleet at Swali, leading Jahangir to issue a farman in 1613, ordering the British to establish a permanent trading post at Surat.
Establishment of the first factory by the British-1613
"As a result, the first factory of the East India Company was established at Surat in 1613 AD, while the first trading post was established at Musalipatnam in 1611 AD."
British victory in Battle of Plassey 1757, Battle of Buxar 1764
The turning point came with the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757, where the British East India Company paved the way for dominance over India. Robert Clive led the British army to victory against Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal. This victory was followed by another important British victory at the Battle of Buxar on 22 October 1764, which provided a permanent basis for their authority in India. After this, no political power or ruler could challenge the might of the British.
Through various wars and treaties, the British expanded their rule over India and maintained their supremacy until India gained independence in 1947 AD.
During their tenure in India, the British established trading centers in major places such as Surat, Madras (present-day Chennai), Bombay (present-day Mumbai), and Calcutta (present-day Kolkata). Their objectives included cultivating sugarcane, opium, tea, coffee, jute, etc., buying these goods at low prices, and exporting them to England.
To facilitate trade and administration, the British invested in building railway lines and roads in important areas of India. Additionally, he introduced expensive cloth from Britain to be sold in India as part of his trade strategies. For nearly 200 years, the British exerted the most significant influence on all European companies operating in India.
The French in India:
During the reign of Louis XIV, in 1664 AD, Colbert established the 'French East India Company.' In 1668 AD, the French successfully established their first factory in Surat, known as the French Cairo, after obtaining permission from Aurangzeb. Subsequently, in 1669 AD, they set up their second factory in Moosalipatnam with the approval of the Sultan of Golconda.
In 1673 AD, Francis Martin laid the foundation of Pondicherry by acquiring a small village from the Subedar of Balikondapuram. Later, in 1774 AD, Shaista Khan, the Subedar of Bengal, ordered the construction of a Kothi in Chandranagar.
The increasing power of the French and their annexation of Indian states under the leadership of the French Governor Dupleix led to conflicts with the British, resulting in three wars known as the Carnatic Wars.
Danish Arrival in India: 1620
Danish India, also known as Gdańsk Ostindian, refers to the colonial possessions of Denmark (and Denmark-Norway before 1814) in the Indian subcontinent. These colonies were part of the Danish colonial empire and were occupied by Denmark-Norway for more than 200 years.
The Danish presence in India included the town of Tharangambadi in present-day Tamil Nadu state, Serampore in present-day West Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands, which are currently part of India's union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Unlike the major European powers, Danish-Norwegian ventures in India did not pose any significant military or trade threat. Their efforts were generally less capitalized, and they could not dominate trade routes like British, French, and Portuguese enterprises.
Danish-Norwegian merchants suffered losses, but managed to maintain their colonial holdings and occasionally found opportunities in international trade by taking advantage of wars between large countries and offering foreign trade under a neutral flag. This gave him the opportunity to remain in India for many years. However, with the growth of British imperial power, Denmark eventually sold all of its Indian possessions to Britain during the nineteenth century.
The success of Dutch and English merchants in the spice trade during the 17th century fueled jealousy between Danish and Norwegian merchants. In response, on March 17, 1616, King Christian IV of Denmark-Norway issued a charter establishing the Danish East India Company with a 12-year monopoly on trade between Denmark-Norway and Asia. It took two years to raise enough capital for the first campaign, partly due to a lack of confidence from Danish investors.
Marchelis de Boshower, a Dutch merchant and colonial administrator, played a key role in furthering the voyage. He arrived (or claimed to be one) as an emissary to the Emperor of Ceylon, Senaret Adsin, seeking military assistance against the Portuguese and offering a trade monopoly with the island. Although his appeal was initially rejected by his countrymen, it eventually convinced the Danish king to proceed.
The first expedition set sail in 1618 under the leadership of Admiral Ove Gajde. It took them two years to reach Ceylon, during which time they lost more than half of their crew. However, on arrival in May 1620, he found that the Emperor of Ceylon no longer wanted foreign aid, as he had concluded a peace agreement with the Portuguese three years earlier. Failing to secure a trade contract, the Dano-Norwegians briefly occupied the Koneswaram temple before obtaining information from their trade director, Robert Krappe.
Crape sailed ahead of the main fleet on a scouting cargo ship and was attacked by Portuguese ships off the coast of Karaikal. After the ship sank, he and some crew members were captured by the Indians and taken to the Nayaks of Tanjore. Nayak expressed interest in trading opportunities, and Krappe negotiated a treaty that allowed the Dano-Norwegians the village of Tranquebar (or Tharangambadi), the right to build a "stone house" (Fort Dansborg), and levy taxes. This treaty was signed on November 20, 1620.
All European companies initially came to India for trade, but over time, their desires and ambitions grew to such an extent that they sought to solidify their business interests through various means, including coercion and punishment. Amidst this competition, due to the policies and efficiency of the British, they ended up ruling India for the longest period compared to other European powers.
