International Yoga Day 2024: History, significance, theme of the day

The advent of Muslims in India had an impact on society, culture, governance, and administration. The first Muslim rule was started by the slave dynasty and the Muslim rule till 1526 is called the Sultanate period. During this period 5 different dynasties ruled and adopted a different administrative system. One thing was common among them that this system was based on the principles of Islam. In this article, we will study the subject of Sultanate administration in detail.

 

Sultanate Administration-The Nature and Structure of the Muslim State

In the Muslim state, the administration was characterized by its religious nature. The supreme authority rested with the Sultan, who was believed to have been appointed by God.

The Concept of the Islamic State

Islam espouses the concept of a unified Islamic state with the Quran as its guiding book, Islam as its religion, and Muslims as its community. Muslims consider the teachings and commandments of Allah in the Quran to be universally applicable. Therefore, the organization of Islamic rule was based solely on these teachings.

Divine Authority and Sharia

According to the Quran, Allah is the true ruler and emperor of the entire world. It is the sacred duty of all to obey Allah's commands. Scholars and interpreters of Islamic texts, known as Ulamas, derived legal provisions from the Quran and Hadith to address various situations and problems within the country. This body of Islamic law is known as Sharia.

The Foundations of Islamic Law and Political Theory

Islamic law, known as Sharia, is based on the principles of the Quran and Hadith. According to the Islamic faith, Sharia holds the utmost importance. Both the Khalifa (Caliph) and rulers are subordinate to Sharia, and it is their primary responsibility to govern in accordance with its principles. From this perspective, the Caliph and Sultan were not religious leaders but rather political figures bound by the laws of Sharia. Their duty was to administer governance based on the principles of justice.

The Delhi Sultanate, under its Turkic Afghan rulers, declared itself an Islamic state. They introduced political principles in which there was no distinction between the political head of state and the religious leader.

The political theory of Islam was established on three fundamental pillars:
 

(1) A religious book, the Quran.
(2) A sovereign authority.
(3) One unified nation.

The Quran served as the religious book, while the sovereign authority was vested in the Imam, leader, Caliph, or Sultan. The nation, on the other hand, comprised the Muslim brotherhood, known as the Millat. The unique characteristic of Muslim political theory was the inseparability of these three elements, emphasizing their interdependence and unity.

The Influence of Religion on the Policy of Delhi Sultans

Religious considerations greatly influenced the policies of the Delhi Sultans, and it was their duty to adhere to varying degrees of Islamic laws. However, when Iltutmish once requested his Wazir, Muhammad Junaydi, to fully implement Islamic laws, the latter responded by stating that Muslims in India were like drops in the sea. Therefore, the complete implementation of Islamic laws, both in India and in non-Muslim territories (Darul Harb), was not feasible. The Sultan's ideal objective was to convert the populace to Islam.

The Role of the Caliph

The Caliph held the position of authority over the Muslim world. Following Muhammad, there were four initial caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman, and Ali. Initially, the Caliph was elected, but later the position became hereditary. In 661 AD, the Umayyad dynasty established its reign over the Caliphate, with its center at Dashmik (Samiriya).

In 750 AD, the Abbasid Caliphate was established, with Baghdad as its center. In 1253, Halaku Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, assassinated the Caliph of Baghdad. Consequently, the center of the Caliph's power shifted to Egypt. This led to multiple claimants vying for the Caliphate, including the Umayyad dynasty of Spain, the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt, and the Abbasid dynasty of Baghdad. Initially, there was only one unified Islamic state.

The Emergence of Independent Rulers as Sultans

Over time, as the political authority of the Caliph weakened, independent rulers in certain regions assumed power as representatives of the Caliph. These rulers were recognized by the Caliph and were known as 'Sultans.' Gradually, their positions became hereditary, leading to the development of the monarchy.

The Concept of the Sultan

The term 'Sultan' signifies power or authority. It was sometimes used to refer to provincial governors of the Caliphate. As the disintegration of the Caliphate began, independent Muslim rulers in various provinces adopted the title of Sultan.

The Foundation of the Muslim Empire in India and the Sultanate of Delhi

The establishment of the Muslim Empire in India began with rulers assuming the title of Sultan. The Sultans of Delhi inherited this title from Mahmud of Ghaznavi. Mahmud Ghaznavi was the first independent ruler to bestow upon himself the title of Sultan. He adopted this title after gaining independence from the authority of the Samarids.

The Powers and Position of the Sultan

The Sultan held a position of absolute authority and was the most prominent figure in the administrative structure of the Sultanate. As a military autocrat, he concentrated all the powers of the state—executive, legislative, judicial, and military—in his hands. The Sultan served as the central figure around which the entire administrative framework of the Sultanate revolved. Even from a Hindu ideological perspective, the king is seen as a manifestation of God in human form.

The Divine Nature of the Sultanate and Balaban's Title

The post of Sultan was also proclaimed to possess divine attributes in Iranian schools. According to Barani, the heart of the Sultan served as a mirror of God, reflecting the desires of God Himself. Based on these beliefs, Balban assumed the title of Jill-Allah (Shadow of God) and introduced the practices of Sijda and Paibos in his court.

The Council of Ministers and State Affairs

The Council of Ministers, known as Majlis-i-Khalwat, convened to discuss and address various state matters. The venue where the council convened was called Majlis-e-Aam. It served as the forum for deliberating upon all affairs of the state.

The Court of the Sultan and the Function of Different Chambers

In the Bar-e-Khas, the Sultan summoned courtiers, khans, nobles, landlords, and other dignitaries. The majority of state affairs were conducted in the Bar-e-Azam. Scholars, Mullahs, and Qazis were also present in this chamber. The Sultan, as the highest judge, held court in the Darbar-i-Aam. He was aided by a group of ministers in carrying out his duties.

 Khalifa and Sultan - Relationship and Titles

Most of the Turkish Sultans of Delhi, despite their independence, acknowledged the supreme authority of the Khalifa in principle. The Khalifa was regarded as the head of the entire Islamic state. As the Delhi Sultanate was part of the Khilafat, the Sultans honored the Caliph in their Khutbi (Friday sermon) and inscribed his name on their coins. The Sultans considered themselves as Naibs (allies) of the Caliph. However, the Caliph had no right to interfere in the internal or external policies of the Delhi Sultanate, nor did he receive regular taxes or tributes. He held a nominal position as the head of the Islamic world.

Iltutmish's Charter and Recognition

Among the Sultans of Delhi, Iltutmish was the first to receive a charter from Caliph Almuntasir Villah of Baghdad in 1229 AD. He assumed the title of Nasir Amir Ulmomanin (Assistant of the Caliph). The Caliph recognized Iltutmish as the ruler of the territories he had conquered. However, Iltutmish did not accept the supremacy of the Caliph, as evidenced by his attack on Ghiyasuddin, the ruler of Bengal, whom he defeated and incorporated Bengal into the Delhi Sultanate.

Balban's Acceptance of Khalifa's Authority

Balban established an autocratic monarchy and assumed the title of District-Allah. However, he acknowledged the authority of the Khalifa by including the Khalifa's name in his Khutbs and inscribing it on the coins.

Continued Recognition of Caliph on Coins

Even after the assassination of the Abbasi Caliph by Halaku in 1258, the name of the Caliph continued to appear on the coins of the Sultans of Delhi for four decades. The Sultans declared themselves as Nasir-e-Amir-ul-Momineen (Assistant of the Caliph). Simultaneously, they maintained diplomatic relations with Il-Khan, a descendant of Halaku.

Change in Attitude towards the Khalifa

It is evident that the Sultans of Delhi did not consider the Khalifa as their rightful lord. Their devotion was directed towards the Khilafat rather than the Khalifa. After Alauddin Khilji, the attitude of the Sultans towards the Khalifa underwent a change.

Refusal and Self-Declaration of Khalifa

Mubarak Khilji, the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, rejected the sovereignty of the Caliph. He declared himself Khalifa-i-Khabul and Amir-ul-Momineen (Khalifa himself), assuming the titles of 'Khalifat-ul-Lah' and Al-Wasiq Billah. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq re-established relations with the Caliph and proclaimed himself Nasir-i-Amir-ul-Mominin (the Caliph's assistant).

The importance is given by Muhammad and Firoz Tughlaq

Initially, Muhammad Tughluq did not accord much significance to the Caliph. However, due to continuous rebellions against him, he included the Caliph's name in the Khutbs and coins. He inscribed the name of Abbasi Caliph Al-Mustafifi on his coins.

Firoz Tughlaq's Acceptance and Khilaat

During the first six years of his reign, Firoz Tughlaq twice received acceptance and Khilaat (robes of honor) from the Abbasi Caliph of Egypt. He declared himself as the Naib (deputy) of the Caliph. 

Amir Class: The Most Important Administrative Class in 13th Century Northern India

During the 13th century in northern India, the emergence of the Amir class played a crucial role in the administrative structure. This class consisted of two distinct groups: the first being the Turkish slave-rich class, and the second being the non-Turkish (Tajik) rich class. The non-Turkish nobility comprised foreigners from Central and West Asia who migrated to India in search of livelihood. Among these two groups, the Turks held more power and occupied significant positions in governance and administration.

Under the reign of Iltutmish, the Turk-i-Chahalgani, also known as Chalisa or Chargan, was established. This group consisted of forty slaves. Following Iltutmish's death, the Turkish nobles gradually increased their interference in matters of power. During Razia's rule, a struggle ensued among the Chahalgani Turk chieftains. For the first time, Razia attempted to challenge the feudal class and consolidate the power of the non-Turk ruling class.

During the time of Muizzuddin Bahram, the nobles created the position of Naib-i-Mumlikat to limit Sultan's authority. Initially, Ikhtiyaruddin Aitgeen was appointed to this role. Nasiruddin Mahmud relinquished his powers in favor of the Turkish chieftains, particularly Balban. Balban's accession marked the establishment of a strong central government, and he positioned himself as the guardian of the interests of the Turkish nobles, emphasizing his noble lineage.

Alauddin Khilji implemented a policy shift by granting positions to nobles based on merit instead of hereditary or caste considerations. For one year after Alauddin's ascension, there were no Turkish nobles in the formed cabinet.

During Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's brief reign, the relationship between the nobles and the Sultan remained cordial. However, this situation underwent a complete transformation during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He introduced a new system of affluent officials based on a mixed tribal foundation, aiming to weaken the existing rich class. The era of Firoz Tughluq witnessed harmony between the Sultan and the nobles.

Throughout the Sultanate period, the dynamics between the Sultan and the nobles experienced fluctuations. Certain groups or individuals among the nobles continued to exert influence on the Sultan, but no noble class could establish a permanent and institutionalized presence during this period. The Lodi period is considered the golden age of the rich, while the periods of Alauddin and Balban are seen as their low points.

Ulema Class: Influential Religious Teachers and Interpreters

The Ulema class played a significant role as Islamic religious teachers and interpreters of Sharia law. They held considerable influence not only in matters of religion but also in the government. As recognized interpreters of the Shari'ah, the Ulema served two important functions: they acted as advisors to the Sultan on policy matters related to religion, and they enjoyed a de facto monopoly over judicial positions within the state.

Differences and Patronage in Turkish-Afghan Rule

During the rule of Iltutmish, there were disagreements between a faction of the Ulema and the Sultan. Balban provided some political support to the Ulema, but subsequent rulers like Alauddin and Muhammad Tughluq did not prioritize religion over politics. Muhammad Tughlaq's philosophical outlook led to strained relations with the Ulema. Nevertheless, the Ulema remained an integral part of the ruling class throughout the Turkish-Afghan rule.

The Central Administration: Sultan and the Power Structure

The Sultan, meaning "ruler," held the highest position in the central government. The Sultan possessed full administrative authority, both constitutionally and practically. As an autocratic ruler, the Sultan's power was somewhat tempered by the influence of the Ulema and the rich class.

The Pillars of the Administrative Structure

The central level of administration included numerous ministers and high-ranking officials who assisted the Sultan. Among these officers, four key individuals can be identified as the pillars of the administrative structure. These four ministers oversaw departments known as Diwan-i-Vizarat, Diwan-i-Arj, Diwan-i-Insha, and Diwan-i-Risalat. Notably, the Tughlaq period was considered the golden age of the Muslim Indian ministry, while Balban's era marked a low point.

The Role of the Wazir

The head of the Diwan-i-Vizarat department called the Wazir, held the highest position within the central government. The Wazir's authority surpassed that of other ministers, earning them the title of Prime Minister. After the Sultan, the Wazir was considered the most senior officer in the administration. In addition to overseeing general administration, the Wazir held particular responsibility for the finance department. Their main tasks included formulating rules for rent settlements, determining tax rates, and managing state expenditures. According to the Muslim jurist Almavad, there were two categories of Wazirs: Wazir-i-Taufid and Wazir-i-Tanfid. The Wazir-e-Tawfid held a higher position in the central government.

Wazir-e-Taufid: Authority and Limitations

The Wazir-e-Taufid held significant decision-making powers without requiring Sultan's orders. However, they lacked the authority to appoint a successor. Conversely, the Wazir-i-Tanfid's powers were limited as they followed the Sultan's directives. Their responsibilities involved implementing state regulations and overseeing employees and the general public.

Departmental Structure under the Wazir

The Wazir oversaw several departments, including Diwan-i-Israf (Audit Department), Diwan-i-Imarat (Public Works), Diwan-i-Amirkohi (Agriculture Department), and more. By fulfilling the military department's requirements, the Wazir also exerted control over the military system. Additionally, the Wazir managed scholarships and living allowances provided to scholars and the underprivileged.

Assistants and Officers

To aid the Wazir, a Naib Wazir (Deputy Wazir) was appointed. Below the Naib Wazir was the Mushrife-Mumalik (Accountant General). The audit section within the Diwan-i-Wizarat department was headed by officers known as Mushrikee Mumalik and Mustaufieummaalik.

The Mushrife Mumalik was responsible for accounting income from provinces and other departments, while the Mustafi-e-Mumalik monitored state revenues. The revenue department structure was fully developed during Firoz Tughlaq's reign, with a clear separation between the roles of Mushrif-i-Mumalik and Mustaufi-i-Mumalik.

Furthermore, Firoz Tughlaq established a separate Imlak Department, managed by a designated officer, to oversee Sultan's direct income. The Wazir had direct control over the Diwan-i-Amir Kohi Department, which aimed to improve the functioning of the Malgujari system and make uncultivated land arable. Financial assistance for this department was obtained from the Wazir. The Mushrif-e-Mumalik handled income accounting, while the Mustafi-e-Mumalik managed expenditure records.

Financial and Clerical Staff

The Wazir's financial and clerical staff included Amil, Karkun, and Mutasarrif. The Mushrik Mumalik had an assistant named Nazir. The position of the Wazir underwent several changes during the Sultanate period, reflecting shifts in power dynamics.

Development of Additional Departments

Jalaluddin Khilji established the Diwan-i-Waquf as a branch of the Wizarat, responsible for managing expenditure papers. Alauddin Khilji introduced the Diwan-i-Mustakhraj department under Diwan-i-Vizarat to investigate and recover outstanding revenue. The Tughlaq period witnessed a significant increase in the power and influence of the Wazirs. To assist the Wazir, officials known as Vakil-i-Sultanat were reintroduced. However, under the Lodis, the role of the Wazir became insignificant.

Prominent Wazirs

Fakhduddin Isami served as the Wazir under Iltutmish. Muhammad Junaidi, who received the title of Nizamulmulk, succeeded him. During Balban's reign, power was highly centralized, diminishing the significance of the Wazir. While Khwaja Hasan held the nominal position of Wazir, Balban further reduced Wazir's power by appointing Ahmad Ayaz as Ariz-i-Mamalik.

During Jalaluddin Khilji's rule, Khwaja Khatir briefly held the post of Wazir. Later, Nusrat Khan became Wazir. After Nusrat Khan's death, Malik Kafur assumed the position of Wazir.

During Muhammad Tughlaq's reign, Ahmad Ayyaz served as the Wazir and was bestowed with the title of Khan-i-Jahan. Muhammad Tughlaq entrusted him with the responsibility of administering Delhi when he embarked on a campaign. Ahmad Ayyaz remained the Wazir throughout Muhammad Tughluq's 28-year rule. In Firoz Tughlaq's era, Khan-i-Jahan Maqbool held the position of Wazir. He received a salary of 13 lakh tankas, along with separate funds for his army and servants' expenses.

Diwan-i-Arz: Military Administration

Balban established the Diwan-i-Arz department and appointed Ahmad Ayyaz as his Ariz-e-Mumalik. The head of this department, the Ariz-e-Mumalik, had the primary responsibility of recruiting soldiers, ensuring the well-being of soldiers and horses, and conducting military inspections. They also arranged food and transportation for the army.

Alauddin Khilji personally supervised the Diwan-i-Arz department. During the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud, the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty, the Vakil-i-Sultan position was established to oversee administration and the military system. However, this post eventually became defunct.

In summary, the position of the Wazir played a crucial role in the central administration of the Sultanate period. They were responsible for overseeing various departments, managing finances, and exerting control over the military system. While the power and influence of the Wazirs fluctuated over time, their contributions left a lasting impact on the governance and functioning of the Sultanate.

Diwan-i-Isha: Royal Secretariat

The Diwan-i-Isha served as the royal secretariat, headed by the Dabir-i-Khas. Minhajuddin Siraj referred to this department as the Diwan-i-Ashraf. Its primary function was to prepare manuscripts of royal proclamations and letters, draft orders on behalf of the Sultan, and maintain state records. Due to the confidential nature of its work, the position of Dabir-e-Mumalik held great importance. Several secretaries, known as Dabirs, assisted the Dabir-e-Mumalik. The personal secretary of the Sultan was referred to as Dabir-i-Khas, responsible for managing the Sultan's correspondence.

Diwan-i-Rasalat: Foreign Affairs or Religious Matters

The Diwan-i-Rasalat is commonly understood as the foreign affairs department, but according to Dr. I. H. Qureshi, it was associated with religious subjects. It was presided over by the Sad. This department drafted letters to be sent to neighboring states and maintained close contact with individuals traveling abroad or coming to the country.

Diwan-i-Barid: Intelligence Department

The Diwan-i-Barid functioned as the intelligence department, with its president known as Barid-e-Mumalik. The Barid-e-Mumalik also served as the chief news writer of the state. The department employed spies, messengers, and post runners. They appointed numerous informants in cities, markets, and populated areas, who relayed confidential information to the Barid-i-Mumalik for Sultan's service. Alauddin Khilji appointed an intelligence officer named Munhiyans to this department.

Diwan-i-Qaza: Department of Justice

The Diwan-i-Qaza was responsible for administering justice and served as the Department of Justice. It was headed by the Qazi-i-Mumalik (Qazi-ul-Kujat), sometimes referred to as Shaikh-ul-Islam (Sadr Jahan or Sad-us-Sudur). The Qazi-i-Mumalik oversaw the operation of the judiciary. The department included Naib Qazis and Adals who carried out the tasks related to the execution of justice. Additionally, there were muftis who provided explanations of legal principles and issued judgments on intricate matters.

Sadr-Us-Sudur: Chief Advisor in Religious Matters

The Sadr-us-far acted as the chief advisor to the Sultan in religious affairs. Their role involved enforcing Islamic rules and regulations. They were also responsible for approving the stipends of Muslim Ulema, scholars, and religious figures. This officer held authority over the zakat collected from the Muslims.

Amir-e-Hajib: Master of Ceremonies

The Amir-e-Hajib, also known as Barbak, maintained the etiquette and grandeur of the royal court. No one could approach the Sultan or submit a petition without the permission of the Amir-e-Hajib. This officer enjoyed a close relationship with the Sultan and was typically appointed from among Sultan's close relatives or most trusted individuals. The personal Hajib of the Sultan was called Hajib-i-Khas. When the Sultan led an expedition, Amir Hajib acted as his personal secretary.

Diwan-i-Riyasat: Market Control Department

Alauddin Khilji established a new department called Diwan-i-Riyasat to implement the market control system. Its role was to manage the sale of all goods based on price lists determined by the Sultan. Separate superintendents, known as Shahna-i-Mandi, oversaw the major commodity markets.

Diwan-e-Kohi: Agricultural Development and Revenue System

Muhammad bin Tughluq established the Diwan-e-Kohi department to oversee agricultural development and the revenue system. It was led by the Amir-i-Diwan Kohi.

This department focused on investigating and improving agricultural practices, ensuring proper land utilization, and maximizing revenue from agricultural activities. The Amir-i-Diwan Kohi played a crucial role in implementing agricultural policies and ensuring the effective functioning of the revenue system.

The Diwan-i-Kohi aimed to enhance agricultural productivity, promote land cultivation, and generate revenue for the state. It monitored land use, assessed agricultural yields, and implemented measures to increase agricultural output.

The department worked closely with the Diwan-i-Amirkohi, the agricultural department under the Wazir, to coordinate efforts and streamline agricultural policies. It played a pivotal role in formulating strategies for land management, irrigation systems, and crop selection to optimize agricultural productivity.

The Amir-i-Diwan Kohi, along with his team, supervised land surveys, assessed land quality, and devised strategies to bring uncultivated land under cultivation. They also implemented policies to support farmers, provide agricultural subsidies, and ensure the fair collection of agricultural taxes.

Furthermore, the Diwan-i-Kohi collaborated with other departments such as the Diwan-i-Barid to gather information on agricultural conditions, market trends, and crop yields. This enabled the government to make informed decisions regarding agricultural policies and revenue collection.

Vakeel-e-Dar - The Administrative Head of the Royal Family Department

Vakeel-e-Dar was a crucial department related to the affairs of the royal family. According to Professor Habibullah, it served as the administrative head and controller of the royal family system. Essentially, it acted as the precursor to the Mughal-era Mirsama.

Diwan-e-Bandgan - The Slave Department

Diwan-e-Bandgan, established by Firoz Tughlaq, was responsible for managing the affairs of slaves. Its primary role was to train slaves in various trades and assign them to work in royal factories and other designated places. Officers such as Arj-e-Bandgan, Majmuabar, Chaushgori, and Diwan served under this department.

Diwan-i-Khairat - The Department for Financial Assistance

Firoz Tughlaq established the Diwan-i-Khairat department, which focused on providing financial assistance for the marriages of impoverished and vulnerable individuals' daughters. The department allocated a specific amount of tanks, such as 50, 30, or 25, based on the circumstances of each person, to support the marriage expenses.

Diwan-i-Imarat - The Public Works Department

Sultan Firoz Tughlaq founded the Diwan-i-Imarat or Public Works Department. Referred to as 'Imaratkhana' by Afif, this department was led by the Mir-i-Imarat (Chief Officer). Mir-e-Imarat had several Shahnas under their supervision. The department played a vital role in constructing various structures such as inns, canals, dams, mosques, buildings, tombs, and madrasas.

Majmuadar - The Revenue Officer

Majmuadar was responsible for assessing income and expenditure. They held the duty of keeping track of loans provided to individuals.

Khajin (Treasurer) - The Custodian of Cash

The Khajin functioned as the treasurer, responsible for safeguarding and managing the cash reserves.

Sarjandar - The Leader of the Sultan's Bodyguards

Sarjandar held a significant role as the leader of the Sultan's bodyguards, ensuring their protection and security.

Ameer-e-Majlis - The Manager of Meetings and Festivities

Ameer-e-Majlis was in charge of organizing meetings, feasts, festivals, and other related events.

Amir-i-Akhur - The Head of the Stable

Amir-i-Akhur held the important position of overseeing the stable, ensuring the management and well-being of the royal horses.

Shahna-e-Peel - The Head of the Hastishala

Shahna-e-Peel was the head of the Hastishala, responsible for managing and overseeing the elephant stable.

Ameer-e-Shikar - The Hunting Manager

Ameer-e-Shikar played a significant role in organizing and managing hunting activities for the Sultan.

Diwan-i-Istehqaq - The Pension Department

Diwan-i-Istehqaq served as the pension department, providing financial support to alims (scholars) and Muslim theologians.

Majlis-i-Aam or Majlis-i-Khalwat - The Council of Trusted Advisors

Majlis-i-Aam or Majlis-i-Khalwat acted as the council of the Sultan's trusted friends and advisors. This council played a vital role in providing consultations on important matters.

Imperial Factories - Centers of Royal Manufacturing

The imperial factories held a significant position within the administrative system of the Sultanate. These factories were responsible for producing luxury items for the royal court and the royal family. The concept of establishing state-run factories was likely adopted by Persia. The royal factories received financial assistance from both the state and merchants. During his reign, Muhammad Tughluq constructed a textile factory that employed four thousand artisans and specialized in silk clothes and embroidery.

Imported fabrics from Alexandria were used for creating garments, while cotton cloth from Delhi or neighboring regions, as well as imports from China and Iraq, were used for making summer attire. Firoz Tughlaq particularly emphasized the development of the imperial factories and considered them of great importance, akin to Akta. Consequently, the number of factories expanded significantly to 36 during his rule.

Afif categorized the government factories into two types: Ratibi and Non-Ratibi. Ratibi factories received a fixed annual grant, and those employed within them received a steady salary. Examples of Ratibi factories included Pilkhana (Gajshala) for elephants, Paigahkhana (horse stable), Sharabkhana (brewery), Shayakhana (lighting-related), and Shaturkhana (Dent Khana). These Ratibi factories incurred substantial expenses.

Paigah (horse stable) held the utmost significance among the Ratibi factories and existed in numerous locations. The largest Paigah, Shahkhana Multanpur, was situated near the Qibla Darbar. On the other hand, the non-Ratibi factories did not have a fixed grant and employed individuals on indefinite pay. Examples of non-Ratibi factories included Jamadarkhana (clothing-related), Alamkhana (ensign department), Farrashkhana (flooring, etc.), and Riqab Khana (department related to horse saddles and food).

Each factory was headed by a higher-ranking master, while the director general of the royal factories was known as the Mutasarrif. The Mutasarrif received the initial royal orders and was responsible for maintaining separate accounts for the department, which were submitted annually for examination to the Diwan-i-Wizarat. During Firoz Tughlaq's reign, Khwaja Abul Hasan served as the chief Mutasharrif and was appointed to regularly audit the factory accounts.

Khwaja Abul Hasan had a dedicated office and communicated the Sultan's orders through a firman. He would instruct the factory workers to produce specific items. The accounts of the factories were audited in the Diwan-i-Majmue.

Provincial Administration - Governance at the Local Level

Provincial administration mirrored the structure of the central government. The Sultanate was divided into several provinces known as Iqta or Vilayat. The governors of these provinces held titles such as Iqtadar, Wali, Mukti, or Naib.

The Iqtadar or Wali served as the head of the executive, judiciary, and military organizations within the province. Their primary responsibilities included maintaining peace and order, as well as overseeing the collection of land revenue.

The appointment, transfer, and removal of Walis were carried out by the Sultan, and they were accountable to the Sultan for their actions. In the provinces, financial affairs were managed by officers known as Sahibe Diwan or Khwaja, while provincial officers were responsible for military affairs. Revenue collection in the provinces was handled by officers named Nazir and Waquf.

Imperial Factories

Factories held a crucial place in the administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate. These factories were responsible for producing luxury items for the royal court and the royal family. The concept of establishing state factories was likely borrowed from Persia. Financial assistance for the royal factories was provided by the state as well as merchants.

During Muhammad Tughluq's reign, a textile factory was established, employing four thousand artisans and specializing in silk clothes and embroidery. The factory used imported fabrics from Alexandria, and cotton garments were made from locally produced or imported materials from China and Iraq. Firoz Tughlaq made significant efforts to develop the imperial factories, considering them of utmost importance. The number of factories increased to 36 during his reign.

Provincial Administration

The provincial administration served as a model for the central government. The Sultanate was divided into various provinces known as Iqta or Vilayat, each headed by a governor called Iqtadar, Wali, Mukti, or Naib. The Iqtadar or Wali held authority over the executive, judiciary, and military organizations. Their primary responsibility was to maintain peace and order within the province and oversee the collection of land revenue.

The Sultan appointed, transferred, and removed the Wali, who was accountable to the Sultan for their actions. Within the provinces, financial matters were managed by officers known as Sahibe Diwan or Khwaja, while military affairs had designated provincial officers. Revenue collection was carried out by officials named Nazir and Waquf.

District or Shik Administration

The concept of Shik, meaning 'a part,' was introduced for administrative convenience within the Vilayats or provinces. Balban first implemented Shiks in 1279 AD by dividing provinces like Samana and Sunam into Shiks, assigning them to different nobles.

The administration of each Shik was overseen by a Shikdar, appointed from the affluent class with administrative experience or a history of serving in important positions.

As time progressed, the term Shik was replaced by the word 'Sarkar' during the Lodi period. Shikdars commanded a military force that aided in suppressing rebellions and supporting revenue collection.

Below the Shik level, the administrative unit was the Pargana, comprising multiple villages. The chief officer of the Pargana was the Amil, responsible for establishing a peaceful system within the Pargana. Each Pargana had officials such as Amil, Sirhang, Mushrif, Muhassil, and Gumashte, managing various aspects of administration, including revenue collection.

Karkoons were appointed to maintain revenue accounts. In Doab, there were approximately fifty-five Parganas during Firoz Tughlaq's reign. Ibn Battuta mentioned 'Sadi,' a group of one hundred villages, as a unit of governance.

Village Administration

Village administration formed the smallest unit of administration within the Pargana. The village was headed by officials such as Patwari, Khoot, Mukaddam (Headman), and Chaudhary. Their primary responsibilities included maintaining peace and order in the village and assisting in revenue collection. They collected taxes from farmers, which were then remitted to the Diwan-e-Vizarat.

These officials were entitled to retain a portion of the collection as remuneration, known as Haq-i-Khutti or Khuli. Additionally, the village headman collected a small cess from cultivators called kismat-i-Khoti.

During Alauddin Khilji's reign, the status of Khuts, Mukaddams, and Chaudharies was diminished, subjecting them to land revenue, house tax, and grazing tax. However, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq restored their former privileges, exempting their fields and pastures from tax assessments.

The Chaudhary held the highest rural authority for land revenue in the Delhi Sultanate. They were exempt from Jizya (poll tax), Kharaj (land tax), house tax, and grazing tax. Panchayats also played a significant role in village administration as they resolved ordinary disputes within the village. Each village had a watchman, revenue collector, and patwari to assist in the administration and collection of revenue.

Army in the Delhi Sultanate

The military organization held special importance in the Turkish administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate. The power of the Sultans relied heavily on their military force. Let's explore the different aspects of the army and its evolution during the Sultanate period.

Early Military Structure

In the early days of Turkish rule, the Sultans entrusted various territories to their respective generals, known as Aktadar or Wali. These territories were referred to as Akta. The Aktadars collected revenue from these territories to fund their subordinate armies. The strength and organization of the army depended largely on the personal ability of the Sultan.

Iltutmish and the Royal Army

Iltutmish, the first Turkic ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, made significant contributions to the military organization. He reorganized the Sultanate army into a royal army called Jandar. During his reign, the Sultanate army was divided into two parts: the central army known as Hashm-e-Kalb or Kalb-e-Sultani, and the provincial army known as Hashm-e-Ataraf. Additionally, a special class called Bandgan-i-Khas or Khadam-i-Khas was created.

The royal cavalry was known as Sawar-i-Kalb, and Iltutmish maintained a personal invasion army called Shamsi horsemen. The formation of Iltutmish's army was based on the recruitment of soldiers as slaves.

Balban's Military Reforms

Balban, another influential ruler, established the Diwan Arj department to further organize the military system. He significantly expanded the Sawar-e-Kalb, strengthening the army.

Alauddin Khilji and the Permanent Army

Alauddin Khilji played a pivotal role in establishing a permanent army during the Sultanate period. He maintained a substantial army in the center consisting of 475,000 horsemen and foot soldiers, making it the largest army among the Delhi Sultans.

During the Khilji period, various military ranks were introduced, such as Amiran-i-Sada, Amiran-i-Hazara, and Amiran-i-Tuman, influenced by Mongol practices.

Subsequent Developments and Challenges

Even during the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, a permanent army continued to exist in the center. However, Firoz Tughlaq consolidated them into a single organization, struggling to maintain strict discipline within the army. Consequently, the military strength of the Sultanate weakened.

Lodi Dynasty and Tribal Army Squads

During the Lodi period, the army's organization was based on tribal divisions. The royal army took on a distorted form resembling tribal army squads, signifying a departure from the earlier structured military system.

Throughout the Delhi Sultanate's history, the military played a crucial role in maintaining the Sultan's authority and safeguarding the empire. The army's evolution and its varying structures reflected the changing dynamics and challenges faced by the rulers of the Sultanate.

Military Department and its Organization

The military system of the Delhi Sultanate was overseen by the Military Department, known as Diwan-i-Arj. This department was responsible for managing the military affairs of the empire. At its helm was the head of the department, called Ariz-e-Mumalik, who was in charge of recruiting soldiers and determining their salaries.

Additionally, the Ariz-e-Mumalik made recommendations regarding the allocation of cash salaries or land grants to the soldiers. Following a victorious campaign, the Ariz-e-Mumalik would collect the Mal-e-Ganimah (booty) and distribute it among the soldiers in the presence of the commanding officer. In the provinces, provincial Arizs were appointed to oversee the organization of the local armies.

Reforms in the Army

To ensure the efficiency and effectiveness of the army, several reforms were implemented over time. When a soldier was recruited, they had to undergo an inspection at the Diwan-i-Arz along with their horse and equipment. If deemed capable during the inspection, the soldier would receive their salary and have their horse expenses covered by the state. One notable reform initiated by Alauddin Khilji, a Sultan of Delhi, was the practice of documenting descriptions of the soldiers.

Khilji also introduced the practice of branding horses to prevent soldiers from substituting inferior horses. Those soldiers who sought to evade this inspection were subject to imprisonment and fines. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, another ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, also focused on military reforms. He introduced measures such as military inquiries, Hulia Pratha (a system of ranks), and Daag Pratha (a system of branding).

During the reign of Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq, it is likely that the Hulia system was abolished, as soldiers were permitted to send their substitutes. However, corruption permeated the military system during Firoz Tughlaq's time. He began recruiting slaves into the army, which had dire consequences. Later, Sikandar Lodi emphasized the maintenance of soldiers' Huliya (description), although the term "face" was used instead of Huliya.

Composition of the Army

The army of the Delhi Sultanate consisted of three main components: the cavalry army, the elephant army, and the infantry.

Cavalry Army

The cavalry army held significant importance within the Delhi Sultanate's military structure. The central cavalry force was known as Sawar-i-Kalb. The cavalry played a paramount role in the Sultanate's military organization, with the army's success greatly dependent on the strength and mobility of its cavalry. There were two types of horse riders: the asp, who had one horse, and the two asps, who had two horses. Horses were imported from various regions such as Arabia, Turkestan, and Russia.

Elephant Army

The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate also recognized the significance of elephants (Hasti) in their army. A separate department called Peelkhana was established to care for the elephants, headed by the Shahna-i-Peel. Elephants were utilized to transport soldiers into battle, breach fortifications, and regulate river currents during river crossings.

Infantry

The infantry consisted of foot soldiers known as Paik. These foot soldiers were predominantly Hindu slaves and individuals from the lower class. They were primarily assigned to tasks such as gatekeeping and guarding. Skilled foot soldiers from Bengal were known as Kushal Paik, while archer foot soldiers were referred to as Dhanukas.

Other Elements of the Army

The Sultanate also maintained a fleet of boats known as Bahr, overseen by the Mir-i-Bahr (head of the fleet). Additionally, there were numerous spies within the army referred to as Talaiya or Yajki. These spies were trained to gather intelligence on the movements of enemies and provide crucial information to the military command.

Classification of the Army

The army of the Delhi Sultanate was classified based on the decimal system, influenced by the Mongols. The smallest military unit was called a "Sarkhel," while the largest unit was known as a "Khan." Historical records indicate that during the 13th century under Balban's rule, the highest-ranking officer in the army held the title of "Malik." The title of "Khan" was introduced during Balban's reign to signify the wealthy class.

The military hierarchy consisted of a Sarkhel leading a corps of ten horsemen, a warlord commanding ten Sarkhelas (100 horsemen), an Amir in charge of ten warlords (1000 horsemen), a Malik overseeing ten Amirs (10,000 horsemen), and a Malik commanding ten Maliks (one lakh horsemen). At the top of the hierarchy was the supreme commander.

By organizing the army into distinct units and ranks, the Delhi Sultanate aimed to maintain a structured and disciplined military force capable of effectively defending and expanding its territories.

Weapons

Various types of weapons were utilized in the Sultanate's black army. Horsemen were equipped with two swords, a spear, a bow, and arrows. Foot soldiers also wielded swords, daggers, bows, arrows, and spears. Gunpowder, shells, and artillery were developed during the Sultanate period. Additionally, weapons such as Kushkanjir (a type of cannon), Maghrib (heavy stones), Manjnik (metal balls), Charkha (stone projectiles), and Falakhoon (catapults) were employed in warfare.

Flags and Symbols

Flags played a significant role in the army, with large banners prominently displaying black and red colors. The flags featured symbols as well. For instance, Qutbuddin Aibak's flag depicted a budding moon and a hooded snake or lion. Sultan Firoz Tughlaq's flag also showcased the figure of a hooded snake. The wealthy individuals also had their own flags. During Muhammad Tughluq's reign, a Khan was permitted to carry seven flags, while an Amir could carry three.

Forts

Forts, known as Durga, held great importance in the military organization of the Sultanate. These forts were strategically constructed at advantageous locations or natural settings. Balban was the first ruler to focus on fortifications, erecting forts to safeguard the northwestern borders from Mongol invasions and stationing soldiers in each fort. Alauddin Khilji also rebuilt forts in border areas and bolstered the fort of Siri. The highest-ranking officer in the fort was the Kotwal, who held the key to the fort. Additionally, there were officers called Mufrid who likely supervised the fort's weapons.

Salaries

The salaries of soldiers varied over time in the Delhi Sultanate. Initially, Turkish rulers allocated land to soldiers in addition to cash salaries. They also received 4/5 of Mal-e-Ganimah (booty goods). However, Alauddin Khilji changed the distribution to 1/5 for the soldiers and 4/5 for the treasury. During Alauddin's rule, cash salaries were introduced. Asp soldiers (those with one horse) received an annual salary of 234 tankas, while two Asps (those with two horses) were granted 378 tankas.

Under Alauddin Khilji, muftis deducted a commission from soldiers' salaries. However, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq abolished this practice and personally supervised the pay register (Vasilat-e-Hashm) of the soldiers. During Khusro Khan's reign, money was freely distributed to soldiers, but arrangements were made to recover the excess amount. This outstanding sum was recorded in a register called Daftar-e-Fazilat and deducted from salaries in installments.

Under Muhammad Tughlaq's reign, detailed records of military officers' salaries and those of their subordinates were maintained. Royal soldiers received an annual salary of 600 tankas. Each Malik's salary ranged from 50,000 to 60,000 tankas, Amirs received 30,000 to 40,000 tankas, Sipahsalars was granted 20,000 tankas, and soldiers' annual salaries ranged from 1000 to 10,000 tankas. Officers received their salaries in the form of Akta (a type of land grant), while soldiers received cash payments. Soldiers under the army chief were directly paid from the royal treasury, while soldiers under the Mukta received their salaries from a portion of the income generated by their Akta.

Firoz Tughlaq introduced the practice of providing Atlaki land instead of cash salaries to the army During Firoz Tughlaq's reign, soldiers began receiving salary in the form of rent from land or villages, a system known as Wajahdari. These soldiers, known as Wajahdars, were granted an annual salary of two thousand tankas. To ensure their income, they were provided with Akta, which served as evidence of their entitlement to the land.

Lawsuits and Justice System

The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate recognized the importance of a robust justice system and took special measures to ensure its effectiveness. The ultimate authority in the justice system rested with the Sultan, who was considered the final source of justice. When making decisions on religious matters, the Sultan sought the assistance of Chief Sadr and Mufti. In secular cases, the Sultan was assisted by the Qazi.

A separate department called the Diwan-i-Qaza was established to handle judicial matters. The head of this department, known as Qazi-e-Mumalik or Qazi-ul-Kujat, was responsible for appointing officers and overseeing the functioning of the judiciary. Naib Qazis and Adals served under the Qazi-ul-Kujat and carried out the tasks related to the administration of justice.

The Sad-us-far held the position of the chief advisor to the Sultan in religious matters and was responsible for implementing Islamic laws. The judicial system was not limited to the central administration but also extended to the provinces. In the provinces, four types of courts existed:

Wali or Governor's Court: The Wali or Governor of the province held the highest authority in the province and was responsible for delivering justice. The Governor acted as the supreme court of the province and, in cases of appeal, sought the assistance of the Qazi-e-Suba. The Wali heard various types of cases, making their court the most extensive in terms of jurisdiction.

Court of Qazi-e-Suba: The Qazi-e-Suba was a position below the Wali and appointed by the Sultan based on the recommendation of Chief Qazi. The Qazi-e-Suba presided over both civil and criminal cases. They supervised the work of all the Qazis in the province and recommended candidates for appointments to the Diwan-i-Suba.

Court of Diwan-i-Suba: The court of Diwan-i-Suba had limited jurisdiction and dealt primarily with land revenue-related matters.

Sadr-Suba's Court: The authority of Sadr-Suba's Court was also limited. Similar to the central administration, muftis and Dadbaks were present in the provincial courts. In larger cities, a judicial officer known as Ameer-e-Dad played a significant role. Their main responsibilities included apprehending criminals and deciding cases in collaboration with the Qazi. Naib-e-Dadbak officers supported the Ameer-e-Dad in their duties.

The judicial subdivisions in the provinces comprised Qazi, Faujdar, Amil, Kotwal, and Gaon Panchayat. The Gaon Panchayat, or village council, enjoyed complete autonomy in local governance. They handled land distribution, resolved local disputes, collected taxes, and deposited them in the government treasury.

Law and Order

In the Sultanate period, there were various types of laws that governed the society. Muslims were subject to Sharia law, while Hindus received justice based on their religious laws and traditions. Criminal laws and political offenses were applicable to all.

Apart from Sharia law, the Sultans also enacted independent laws known as Jabta or Jawabit, which were binding for everyone in the state. Muslim law had four primary sources: the Quran, Hadith (sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad), Ijma (consensus of scholars), and Qayas (analogical reasoning). The Quran held the highest authority as the principal source of Muslim law, followed by Hadith, Ijma, and Qayas.

Iqta System

To facilitate governance, the states were divided into smaller administrative units known as Iqtas. The administrators of these Iqtas were called Mukta or Wali. They were responsible for collecting land revenue and overseeing the administration of their respective areas. After deducting administrative expenses and salaries, the remaining income was sent to the central treasury, known as Fawazil.

Attempts were made by some Sultans to control the Iqtadars. The relationship between the Sultan and the Mukta varied depending on the circumstances, and the position of the Mukta was not hereditary. Balban appointed an officer named Khwaja to the Iqta to monitor its functioning and assess its income.

Alauddin Khilji emphasized the transfer of Iqtadars to establish control over them. During his reign, the Diwan-i-Wizarat supervised the income of the Iqtas. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq separated the personal expenses of the Mukta from the expenditure of their soldiers, ensuring that the soldiers' salaries were not compromised.

Muhammad Tughlaq introduced a clear division of revenue in the Iqta, separating the personal income of the Iqtadars from the salaries of the soldiers under their command. He assigned the responsibility of land revenue collection and administration to a new officer called Wali-ul-Kharaj. According to Ibn Battuta, two types of officers were appointed in the Iqta: Wali-ul-Kharaj, responsible for revenue collection, and Amir, who oversaw the army.

An officer known as Amil inspected the income of the Iqta. Muhammad Tughlaq also ensured that the soldiers' salaries in the Iqta were paid from the central treasury. Firoz Tughlaq introduced the practice of granting land to soldiers in place of salary. During the reign of Lodi, the Wali or Iqtadar became very powerful and maintained large armies and elephants under their control, supervised by the Sultan.

Khalsa or Mahrusa

Khalsa land referred to the land whose income was reserved for the Sultan. The control and supervision of these areas were carried out by an officer known as Shahna, Amir, or Malik. Initially, Bhatinda (Tabarhind) and Gwalior were considered Khalsa lands during the early Sultans' rule. Alauddin significantly expanded Khalsa land, but Firoz Tughlaq reversed this policy, leading to a reduction in Khalsa land. Under Sultan Masud Shah, Bhatinda was converted into a simple Akta, implying a change in its status.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the administration of the Delhi Sultanate was characterized by a centralized system of governance with the Sultan as the ultimate authority. The Sultan held significant power and was responsible for justice, both religious and secular. The justice system consisted of various courts and officials, including Chief Sadr, Mufti, and Qazi, who assisted the Sultan in making legal decisions. The Diwan-i-Qaza served as the judicial department, with Qazi-e-Mumalik at its helm.

The Sultanate also implemented laws based on Sharia for Muslims, while Hindus followed their own religious laws and traditions. Additionally, state laws known as Jabta or Jawabit were enacted by the Sultans, which applied to all subjects. The Iqta system divided the states into smaller units, overseen by Mukta or Wali, who collected land revenue and managed the administration. Over time, attempts were made to control the Iqtadars and ensure a balance of power between them and the central authority.

The Sultanate also had a strong focus on maintaining law and order. The judiciary had a hierarchical structure, with courts such as the Wali or Governor's Court, Qazi-e-Suba's Court, Diwan-i-Suba's Court, and Sadr-Suba's Court in the provinces. Panchayats at the local level played a crucial role in resolving disputes and administering justice, especially in villages.

Overall, the Sultanate administration aimed to establish effective governance, ensure justice, and maintain law and order throughout the realm. The system had its strengths and limitations, but it left a lasting impact on the subsequent political and administrative developments in the region.